How Do Gender Disparities Affect Affordable Non-State Schools Who Work With EduFinance?
Caption: A learner in Western Kenya
Gender disparities in education remain a significant issue, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Despite global progress toward gender parity in primary and secondary enrollment across many regions, 122 million girls and 128 million boys remain out of school (UNESCO 2024). While this aggregate data indicates out-of-school rates between girls and boys are generally equal, girls from poorer and rural areas continue to face the highest barriers to education.
For instance, sub-Saharan Africa [1] has not achieved gender parity at any level of education, with only 87 girls enrolled for every 100 boys in upper secondary school (UNESCO 2024). In Pakistan, girls out-of-school rates exceed boys starting at primary school age, with 54% of girls compared to 38% of boys out of school at the upper secondary level (EGER).
These disparities are driven by a range of factors, including social norms, economic inequalities, and legal barriers that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership and ownership roles within schools. In this blog, we examine the role of gender in regions where we work including India, Western Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Colombia. Education Specialists conducted a small survey with school leaders they work with and provided wider contextual thoughts based on their experiences working with schools in these countries. These insights shed light on how gender influences school operations, ownership, leadership, and the educational experiences of learners.
Caption: Two learners in Kenya
The information shared below is a reflection of survey respondents’ perceptions of school ownership by gender and other gender-related issue, unless the data source is cited.
School Ownership: Gender Disparities and Challenges
Ownership of affordable non-state schools is deeply gendered in many markets, with significant differences across countries. In Nigeria, Abimbola Lasisi, Education Specialist reported that school leaders surveyed estimated 65% of school owners are women, 30% are men, and 5% are couples. The perception that women are more nurturing and better suited for managing younger students plays a role in this distribution. However, women face challenges in fully participating in school ownership in Nigeria due to legal and cultural barriers, such as the inability to inherit land or secure proper documentation. In cases where women inherit land, they may still face the threat of losing it due to family dynamics or powerful male relatives.
Ownership of affordable non-state schools varies widely across regions, and the gender dynamics in each market reflect diverse socio-cultural factors. From EduQuality partner school data we know that in the Dominican Republic, 82% of these schools are owned by women, though only 29% extend education through to secondary level whereas Guatemala has 71% women ownership, with over half of the schools offering secondary education.
In contrast, men dominate school ownership in the DRC and Uganda. Lydia Tumuhairwe, Head Education Specialist in Uganda, pointed out her wider perception that across Uganda “the majority of schools are owned by men—around 70%—with women owning about 30%.” In the DRC, Nelly Muyej, Education Specialist and Adrien Angalia, Senior Education Specialist, recorded that over 80% of EduQuality program partner schools are owned by men. Female-owned schools are commonly limited to primary or early childhood education, while men dominate schools offering secondary education. Female school owners often begin their careers as teachers and transition to opening schools based on the needs they see in their communities. A similar pattern exists in Colombia. John Pulido, Head Education Specialist, shared that many women start small daycare centers in their homes across Colombia, which they gradually grow into schools over time by adding new classes.
Caption: A learner in Colombia
In India, the gender disparity in ownership is even starker, with 85% of schools owned by men, 5% by women, and 10% by couples. Cultural norms position men in leadership roles, especially in fields involving significant capital investment, such as secondary education. Ownership trends reveal that while women are more likely to own and manage schools at the pre-primary and primary levels, male school owners dominate secondary education.
Barriers to Women’s Land Ownership and Inheritance
A critical challenge for women in school ownership is access to land. In many regions, women face significant legal and social barriers to inheriting or purchasing land, making it difficult to establish schools. In Uganda, for example, land inheritance traditionally passes through male family members, leaving few opportunities for women to own property. Lydia explained: “Very few families give land to their daughters. Even when women purchase land, they face additional barriers, such as being questioned about their marital status before the sale is approved.”
In Latin America, cultural biases also favor men when it comes to land ownership and formalizing school operations, though the legal barriers are less restrictive. In India, while men and women have equal legal rights to inherit land, family pressures often compel women to relinquish their land rights to male relatives. These obstacles disproportionately impact women’s ability to expand their schools or formalize ownership.
Parental Perception of Women School Owners
Parental perception, including gender stereotypes, plays a significant role in school choice. In Uganda, parents often prefer female-owned schools, especially for younger children, believing that women are more nurturing and better suited to caring for young children. Lydia noted, “Many parents feel their children are better cared for in female-owned schools, especially if the owner is also a teacher.” This perception strengthens trust in female-led early childhood centers and primary schools.
A similar dynamic exists in parts of Latin America, where parents often trust female school owners due to their perceived nurturing qualities and commitment to serving the community. John shared that “women are seen as better equipped to manage the emotional and social needs of young learners, which influences parental preferences.”
In contrast, in India, Divya Murali, Senior Education Specialist, reported that parents do not exhibit a strong preference between male and female school owners, viewing both genders as equally capable of managing schools.
Caption: A learner in India
School Leadership: Gender and Leadership Stereotypes
Leadership roles in affordable non-state schools are also influenced by gender norms. In Uganda, while more women lead primary schools, men are more prevalent in leadership roles overall, particularly at secondary levels. Lydia explained that societal expectations often position men as more suited for leadership. In Colombia, although women often found running schools for younger children, men frequently assume leadership as schools grow or transition to secondary education, reflecting broader cultural stereotypes that associate leadership with masculinity.
Caption: Learners in Western Kenya
Even in schools owned by women, men often dominate senior leadership roles. In the DRC, for example, only one in four partner schools is led by a woman and in Western Kenya, reported that male leaders frequently occupy senior management positions, reinforcing the stereotype that men are better suited to lead. However, in India, a contrasting trend is observed. Around 80% of school leaders in partner schools are women, particularly at the pre-primary and primary levels, though men remain more prominent in secondary school leadership.
Stereotypes surrounding leadership styles also persist. In India, female leaders are often perceived as “gentle” and “lenient,” whereas male leaders are viewed as “strict” and more discipline-oriented. These stereotypes shape unfair perceptions of leadership effectiveness, with perceived women’s relational approaches sometimes seen as less effective than the stricter methods associated with men.
Gender Norms in Teaching Roles
The gender division in school leadership is mirrored in teaching roles, where women tend to dominate pre-primary and primary education, while men are more common in secondary education. Looking at Western Kenya, Miriam Maina, Education Specialist and Anne Njine, Head Education Specialist, reported that survey respondents showed that societal norms position male teachers as better suited for teaching STEM subjects, leaving women to teach pre-primary and lower primary grades. Lydia observed a similar dynamic in Uganda, where men are more prevalent in higher grades and in subjects like math and science. She explained, “There is a belief that men are better suited for teaching difficult subjects, while women are viewed as nurturing and thus better suited for younger children.”
In Colombia, this trend continues, with women occupying most teaching roles in early childhood and primary education, while male teachers dominate higher grades, particularly in STEM subjects. These divisions reinforce and model stereotypes that men are more capable of handling intellectually challenging subjects, while women are best suited to caring for young children.
Caption: Learners in Colombia
Barriers to Promotion and Pay Equity
Women in education often face barriers to promotion and pay equity. In Uganda, Lydia explained that women frequently miss out on promotions during pregnancy or maternity leave. Men, perceived as more flexible and available, are more likely to be promoted. This trend is also seen in Colombia, where men are often paid more for the same roles, particularly in private schools that lack standardized salary structures. In some cases, men tend to negotiate higher salaries, while women, who may have equal or fewer qualifications, accept lower pay.
Learners: Gender Stereotypes and Access to Education
Gender stereotypes extend to the experiences of learners. In Western Kenya, for example, many teenage girls drop out of school due to pregnancy and then seek work in urban areas to support their families, while boys continue their education. Cultural practices, such as early marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM), further limit educational opportunities for girls in regions like West Pokot County and Mt. Elgon Region.
In Uganda, gender stereotypes are reinforced through classroom examples. Lydia noted that teachers often give lesson examples depicting doctors as male and secretaries as female, shaping students’ perceptions of their future roles. In India, textbooks and classroom materials continue to portray men in professional roles and women in domestic settings, reinforcing traditional gender norms. In Colombia, despite efforts to create more inclusive teaching materials, teachers in affordable non-state schools often must create their own materials and without more resources end up perpetuating these biases.
Caption: Learners in the DRC
Conclusion: Moving Toward Gender Equity in Education
Gender norms have a profound impact on affordable non-state schools, from ownership and leadership to teaching roles and learners’ experiences. Addressing these gender imbalances requires a conscious effort to challenge stereotypes and promote gender equity in school management and classroom practices. While progress is being made in some countries, particularly in increasing women’s participation in school ownership and leadership, significant barriers remain. Understanding and addressing these dynamics is essential for creating more inclusive and equitable educational environments worldwide.
Read our recent reports on Gender Equity in Education Finance, and Advancing Education for Inclusive Excellence to learn more about the work EduFinance is doing to support gender equity and social inclusion with our partners.
[1] Opportunity EduFinance aims to use geographically specific terms when possible, moving away from the term ‘sub-Saharan Africa’ when possible. In this case, we are referencing UNESCO’s data and related definition for sub-Saharan Africa, which includes the 47 states that are parties to the World Heritage Convention, covering West Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, and Southern Africa.